For instance, during the Second World War, radio was used as a propaganda tool by Nazi Germany 5, whereas allied radio, such as the BBC, supported resistance against the Nazi regime, for example, by providing tactical information on allied military activities 6, 7. One likely source of concern is the dual-use dilemma, that is, the inescapable fact that technologies can be used for both noble and malicious aims. Disagreement about the role of new media is not a novel phenomenon throughout history, evolving communication technologies have provoked concerns and debates.

The ongoing heated debate on the opportunities and dangers that digital media pose to democracy has been hampered by disjointed and conflicting results (for recent overviews, see refs. The evidence calls for research efforts and vigilance by governments and civil societies to better understand, design and regulate the interplay of digital media and democracy. While the impact of digital media on political systems depends on the specific variable and system in question, several variables show clear directions of associations. Other associations, such as declining political trust, increasing populism and growing polarization, are likely to be detrimental to democracy and were more pronounced in established democracies. Some associations, such as increasing political participation and information consumption, are likely to be beneficial for democracy and were often observed in autocracies and emerging democracies. We conducted a systematic review of causal and correlational evidence ( N = 496 articles) on the link between digital media use and different political variables. One of today’s most controversial and consequential issues is whether the global uptake of digital media is causally related to a decline in democracy.

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